For instance, esterase-mediated resistance (E4/FE4) has been found in M. However, little is known about the insecticide resistance mechanisms of M. Pirimicarb, an anti-cholinesterase insecticide, is the most frequently used since the last five years. persicae has been chemically controlled by the application of almost all classes of insecticides, including neonicotinoids, pyrethroids, organophosphates and carbamates. Six distinct insecticide resistance mechanisms mediating different levels of insensitivity, have been described for the species: (i) Modified acetylcholinesterase (MACE), which confers resistance to organophosphates and carbamate insecticides –, (ii) kdr and super kdr mutations in a voltage-gated sodium channel, which is the target of pyrethroids and organochlorines –, (iii) the mutation of the GABA receptor, rdl, which is target of organochlorines of the cyclodiene type, , (iv) the recently described mutation of a key residue in the loop D region of a nAChR b1 subunit, (v) the over-production of esterases E4 or FE4 confers resistance to organophosphates, pyrethroids and to a lesser extent carbamates –, and (vi) the recently described over-production of a cytochrome P450 confers resistance to neonicotinoids,. persicae exhibits a striking capacity for rapid adaptation to insecticides, developing resistance to more active compounds than any other known insect. persicae was introduced into Chile with crop plant species, and is presently categorized as one of the three most important agricultural pests in this country. Is a highly polyphagous, feeding on more than 50 plant families, , causing losses to agroindustrial crops (including potato, sugar beet and tobacco), horticultural crops (including plants of Brassicaceae, Solanaceae and Cucurbitaceae families) and stone fruits (peach, apricot, and cherry, among others). The peach green aphid, Myzus persicae, of Palearctic origin, is a cosmopolitan aphid species responsible of important economic losses. Approximately 100 aphid species have successfully exploited agro-ecosystems to become economically important pests, of whom ∼20 have developed at least one known insecticide resistance mechanism. Īphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) are widely distributed herbivorous insects accounting for more than 4,300 described species –. Such studies have shown that insecticide resistance is more complex than previously thought, being mediated by multigenic systems that involve large parts of the insect genomes,. Functional genomics tools have recently been used to disentangle the genetic basis of pesticide resistance in arthropods –. The study of insecticide resistance makes it possible to classify adaptations into three main mechanisms: (i) reduction of insecticide uptake, by reducing the permeability of insect cuticle –, (ii) detoxification, through alteration in the levels or enzyme activities that degrade or sequester insecticides, , – and, (iii) insensitivity due to point mutations in genes encoding for proteins that are the target site of insecticides –. Therefore, identifying the molecular and genetic adaptations responsible for insecticide resistance will offer new opportunities for developing pest management strategies. Agricultural practices usually include the systematic application of a wide array of active compounds at variable dosages and frequencies, which represent a wide range of selective regimes. The development of insecticide resistance in pest insects has been an increasing problem for agriculture, forestry and public health. The study of insecticide resistance is important, both because it leads to a better understanding of evolutionary mechanisms operating in real time, and because of its economic relevance. Insecticide resistance is one of the best examples of micro-evolution, or evolution occurring on an ecological time scale –.
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